the standards of society

(en -er) standard ( fx the standards of society; moral standards; standards of behaviour),

F norm ( fx social norms; norms of behaviour);

( målestok) standard, benchmark ( fx the Tay is used as a benchmark for river cleanliness);

( arbejdsnorm) norm.

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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After leaving school at the age of 17, George Bond taught in local schools for a few years before starting an apprenticeship in a machine shop in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He then worked as a machinist with Phoenix Furniture Company in that city until his savings permitted him to enter the Stevens Institute of Technology at Hoboken, New Jersey, in 1876. He graduated with the degree of Mechanical Engineer in 1880. In his final year he assisted William A.Rogers, Professor of Astronomy at Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Massachusetts, in the design of a comparator for checking standards of length. In 1880 he joined the Pratt \& Whitney Company, Hartford, Connecticut, and was Manager of the Standards and Gauge Department from then until 1902. During this period he developed cylindrical, calliper, snap, limit, thread and other gauges. He also designed the Bond Standard Measuring Machine. Bond was elected a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1881 and of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1887, and served on many of their committees relating to standards and units of measurement.

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See also: Pratt, Francis Ashbury; Whitney, Amos

1 pillar (also figurative).

2 Pilar.

3 crus, leg-like part.

4 abutment.

to remove the husk of, to remove the hull of, to husk, to hull by pounding.

* * *

► nombre masculino

1 pillar

* * *

* * *

1) (=poste) post, pillar; (=mojón) milestone; [de puente] pier

2) (fig) pillar, mainstay

SM [de fuente] basin, bowl

* * *

femenino (Arquit) pillar, column; ( de puente) pier

masculino y femenino ( en rugby) prop (forward)

* * *

= bedrock, cornerstone [corner-stone], keystone, mainstay, pillar, pillar, pier.

Ex. We are the bedrock of our profession and the standards that we attain fundamentally affect the status of the profession.

Ex. Abstracts are the cornerstone of secondary publications.

Ex. These, then, are keystones to labor relations today.

Ex. Technology transfers between developed and underdeveloped nations have been the mainstays of economic development for over 30 years.

Ex. The layout of the buildings makes it difficult for readers to find their way around and the structural pillars prevent a logical sequence of shelving.

Ex. The essential pillars of man's thinking and knowing are the basic concepts which structure all his knowledge.

Ex. Finally, the upkeep of these bridges was a massive task requiring the constant removal of sediment from river beds, piers and abutments.

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* pilares de la sociedad, los = pillars of society, the.

* ser un pilar de fuerza = be a tower of strength.

* * *

femenino (Arquit) pillar, column; ( de puente) pier

masculino y femenino ( en rugby) prop (forward)

* * *

* * *

( Arquit) pillar, column, pier ( tech); (de un puente) pier

los pilares de la sociedad the pillars o mainstays of society

(en rugby) prop, prop forward

* * *

* * *

♦ nm

1. [columna] pillar;

2. [apoyo] pillar;

uno de los pilares de la iglesia católica one of the pillars of the Catholic Church

3. [mojón] milestone

♦ nmf

pilar izquierdo loose head prop

* * *

m tb fig

pillar

* * *

pilar nm

1) : pillar, column

2) : support, mainstay

* * *

pilar n pillar

SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology

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The son of a merchant in the city of his birth, John Christopher had delicate health and required private tuition to overcome the loss of his early years of schooling. At the age of 22 he went to study chemistry at Göttingen University and then worked for a short time for Liebig at Giessen. In 1847 he obtained a post as Analyst and Consulting Chemist at the Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland's Edinburgh office, and two years later he became Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Agricultural College in Cirencester, retaining this post until 1862. In 1855 he was appointed Chemist to the Bath and West Agricultural Society, and in that capacity organized lectures and field trials, and in 1857 he also became Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Initially he studied the properties of farmyard manure and also the capacity of the soil to absorb ammonia, potash and sodium. As Consulting Chemist to farmers he analysed feedstuffs and manures; his assessments of artificial manures did much to force improvements in standards. During the 1860s he worked on milk and dairy products. He published the results of his work each year in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. In 1877 he became involved in the field trials initiated and funded by the Duke of Bedford on his Woburn farm, and he continued his association with this venture until his death.

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See also: Voelcker, John Augustus

= depressed, crisis-ridden, on the rocks

Ex. In the end, whether public libraries are allowed to continue in their present depressed state or whether they will become a many-sided embodier and nourisher of a literate society's literacy, depends not on the standards discussed by the professionals, but on those willed by the public.

Ex. The crisis-ridden French publishing industry is looking to networked information for its salvation.

Ex. Marriage is on the rocks in Britain, with the proportion of unmarried people exceeding that of married people as more men and women opt to live together without constraints.

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1 incarnation, avatar, embodiment.

2 Encarnación.

* * *

► nombre femenino

1 RELIGIÓN incarnation

2 figurado embodiment, incarnation

■ es la encarnación de la sabiduría she's wisdom personified

* * *

SF (Rel) incarnation; (=personificación) embodiment, personification

* * *

femenino incarnation

* * *

= incarnation, embodiment, embodier, avatar.

Ex. The term indexing language can seem rather daunting, and has certainly had different meanings in its different incarnations.

Ex. At first, large public libraries organised readers' advisory services as the embodiment of library adult education.

Ex. In the end, whether public libraries are allowed to continue in their present depressed state or whether they will become a many-sided embodier and nourisher of a literate society's literacy, depends not on the standards discussed by the professionals, but on those willed by the public.

Ex. The article 'Information age avatars' addresses the question of the role of the librarian in preparing for a future of networked information and digital libraries.

* * *

femenino incarnation

* * *

* * *

1 (personificación) incarnation

es la encarnación del mal he is the incarnation o embodiment of evil, he is evil personified

2 ( Relig) incarnation

* * *

* * *

encarnación nf

1. [personificación] [cosa] embodiment;

2. Rel

* * *

1 REL incarnation

2 fig

embodiment

* * *

encarnación nf, pl - ciones : incarnation, embodiment

1 personification, part, role, impersonation.

2 personification, living image.

* * *

► nombre femenino

1 personification

* * *

1) (=representación) personification, embodiment

2) (Literat) personification

* * *

a) ( encarnación) embodiment, personification

b) (Lit) personification

* * *

= incarnation, embodiment, epitome, personification, embodier.

Ex. The term indexing language can seem rather daunting, and has certainly had different meanings in its different incarnations.

Ex. At first, large public libraries organised readers' advisory services as the embodiment of library adult education.

Ex. This extraordinary assault on a fine old children's book has ever since stood for me as the epitome of the scholastic abuse of literature.

Ex. The sketchbook features drawings illustrating the liberal arts (including personifications of the planets), the chivalrous life (including hunting and love), household remedies, mining and smelting, and war technology.

Ex. In the end, whether public libraries are allowed to continue in their present depressed state or whether they will become a many-sided embodier and nourisher of a literate society's literacy, depends not on the standards discussed by the professionals, but on those willed by the public.

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* la personificación de la confianza en uno mismo = confidence personified.

* personificación de la calma, la = picture of calm, the.

* * *

a) ( encarnación) embodiment, personification

b) (Lit) personification

* * *

* * *

1 (encarnación) embodiment, personification

es la personificación de la impaciencia he is impatience personified, impatience is his middle name ( colloq)

2 ( Lit) personification

* * *

* * *

personificación nf

1. [representación] personification;

este niño es la personificación del mal this child is an absolute devil

2. [prosopopeya] personification

* * *

f personification, embodiment

1) demand; (просьба) request; (претензия) claim

2) (обязательное правило, норма) requirements, standards

3) мн. (потребности, запросы) requirements, demands

4) (документ) requisition, order

SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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Carl Edvard Johansson was first apprenticed to a shoemaker, but he soon abandoned that career. In 1882 he went to America to join his brother Arvid working at a sawmill in the summer; in winter the brothers obtained further general education at the Gustavus Adolphus College at St Peter, Minnesota. They returned to Sweden in November 1884 and in the following year Carl obtained employment with a small engineering firm which rented a workshop in the government small-arms factory at Eskilstuna. In his spare time he attended the Eskilstuna Technical College and in 1888 he was accepted as an apprentice armourer inspector. After completion of his apprenticeship he was appointed an armourer inspector, and it was in his work of inspection that he realized that the large number of gauges then required could be reduced if several accurate gauges could be used in combination. This was in 1896, and the first set of gauges was made for use in the rifle factory. With these, any dimension between 1 mm and 201 mm could be made up to the nearest 0.01 mm, the gauges having flat polished surfaces that would adhere together by "wringing". Johansson obtained patents for the system from 1901, but it was not until c.1907 that the sets of gauges were marketed generally. Gauges were made in inch units for Britain and America—slightly different as the standards were not then identical. Johansson formed his own company to manufacture the gauges in 1910, but he did not give up his post in the rifle factory until 1914. By the 1920s Johansson gauges were established as the engineering dimensional standards for the whole world; the company also made other precision measuring instruments such as micrometers and extensometers. A new company, C.E.Johansson Inc., was set up in America for manufacture and sales, and the gauges were extensively used in the American automobile industry. Henry Ford took a special interest and Johansson spent several years in a post with the Ford Motor Company in Detroit, Michigan, until he returned to Sweden in 1936.

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sustaining.

1 sustainer.

2 supporter, sustainer, upholder.

3 breadwinner.

* * *

= nourisher, sustaining.

Ex. In the end, whether public libraries are allowed to continue in their present depressed state or whether they will become a many-sided embodier and nourisher of a literate society's literacy, depends not on the standards discussed by the professionals, but on those willed by the public.

Ex. And so the reading circle is often broken before the sustaining pleasures of reading are discovered.

* * *

= many-sided.

Ex. In the end, whether public libraries are allowed to continue in their present depressed state or whether they will become a many-sided embodier and nourisher of a literate society's literacy, depends not on the standards discussed by the professionals, but on those willed by the public.

* * *

SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology

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Buddle was educated by his father, a former schoolteacher who was from 1781 the first inspector and manager of the new Wallsend colliery. When his father died in 1806, John Buddle assumed full responsibility at the Wallsend colliery, and he remained as inspector and manager there until 1819, when he was appointed as colliery agent to the third Marquis of Londonderry. In this position, besides managing colliery business, he acted as an entrepreneur, gaining political influence and organizing colliery owners into fixing prices; Buddle and Londonderry were also responsible for the building of Seaham harbour. Buddle became known as the "King of the Coal Trade", gaining influence throughout the important Northumberland and Durham coalfield.

Buddle's principal contribution to mining technology was with regard to the improvement of both safety standards and productivity. In 1807 he introduced a steam-driven air pump which extracted air from the top of the upcast shaft. Two years later, he drew up plans which divided the coalface into compartments; this enabled nearly the whole seam to be exploited. The system of compound ventilation greatly reduced the danger of explosions: the incoming air was divided into two currents, and since each current passed through only half the underground area, the air was less heavily contaminated with gas.

In 1813 Buddle presented an important paper on his method for mine ventilation to the Sunderland Society for Preventing Accidents in Coal-mines, which had been established in that year following a major colliery explosion. He emphasized the need for satisfactory underground lighting, which influenced the development of safety-lamps, and assisted actively in the experiments with Humphrey Davy's lamp which he was one of the first mine managers to introduce. Another mine accident, a sudden flood, prompted him to maintain a systematic record of mine-workings which ultimately resulted in the establishment of the Mining Record Office.

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SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

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Frederick Handley Page trained as an electrical engineer but soon turned his attention to the more exciting world of aeronautics. He started by manufacturing propellers for aeroplanes and airships, and then in 1909 he founded a public company. His first aeroplane, the Bluebird, was not a success, but an improved version flew well. It was known as the "Yellow Peril" because of its yellow doped finish and made a notable flight across London from Barking to Brooklands. In 1910 Handley Page became one of the first college lecturers in aeronautical engineering. During the First World War Handley Page concentrated on the production of large bombers. The 0/100 was a biplane with a wing span of 100 ft (30 m) and powered by two engines: it entered service in 1916. In 1918 an improved version, the 0/400, entered service and a larger four-engined bomber made its first flight. This was the V/1500, which was designed to bomb Berlin, but the war ended before this raid took place. After the war, Handley Page turned his attention to airline operations with the great advantage of having at his disposal large bombers which could be adapted to carry passengers. Handley Page Air Transport Ltd was formed in 1919 and provided services to several European cities. Eventually this company became part of Imperial Airways, but Handley Page continued to supply them with large airliners. Probably the most famous was the majestic HP 42 four-engined biplane, which set very high standards of comfort and safety. Safety was always important to Handley Page and in 1920 he developed a wing with a slot along the leading edge: this made slow flying safer by delaying the stall. Later versions used separate aerofoil-shaped slats on the leading edge that were sometimes fixed, sometimes retractable. The HP 42 was fitted with these slats. From the 1930s Handley Page produced a series of bombers, such as the Heyford, Hampden, Harrow and, most famous of all, the Halifax, which played a major role in the Second World War. Then followed the Victor V-bomber of 1952 with its distinctive "crescent" wing and high tailplane. Sir Frederick's last venture was the Herald short-haul airliner of 1955; designed to replace the ubiquitous Douglas DC-3, it was only a limited success.

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SUBJECT AREA: Horology, Metallurgy

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Guillaume came from a family of clock-and watchmakers. He was educated at the Gymnasium in Neuchâtel and at Zurich Polytechnic, from which he received his doctorate in 1883 for a thesis on electrolytic capacitors. In the same year he joined the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres in France, where he was to spend the rest of his working life. He retired as Director in 1936. At the bureau he was involved in distributing the national standards of the metre to countries subscribing to the General Conference on Weights and Measures that had been held in 1889. This made him aware of the crucial effect of thermal expansion on the lengths of the standards and he was prompted to look for alternative materials that would be less costly than the platinum alloys which had been used. While studying nickel steels he made the surprising discovery that the thermal expansion of certain alloy compositions was less than that of the constituent metals. This led to the development of a steel containing about 36 per cent nickel that had a very low thermal coefficient of expansion. This alloy was subsequently named "invar", an abbreviation of invariable. It was well known that changes in temperature affected the timekeeping of clocks by altering the length of the pendulum, and various attempts had been made to overcome this defect, most notably the mercury-compensated pendulum of Graham and the gridiron pendulum of Harrison. However, an invar pendulum offered a simpler and more effective method of temperature compensation and was used almost exclusively for pendulum clocks of the highest precision.

Changes in temperature can also affect the timekeeping of watches and chronometers, but this is due mainly to changes in the elasticity or stiffness of the balance spring rather than to changes in the size of the balance itself. To compensate for this effect Guillaume developed another more complex nickel alloy, "elinvar" (elasticity invariable), whose elasticity remained almost constant with changes in temperature. This had two practical consequences: the construction of watches could be simplified (by using monometallic balances) and more accurate chronometers could be made.

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See also: Le Roy, Pierre

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Photography, film and optics

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William Taylor served an apprenticeship from 1880 to 1885 in London with Paterson and Cooper, electrical engineers and instrument makers. He studied at the Finsbury Technical College under Professors W.E.Ayrton (1847–1908) and John Perry (1850–1920). He remained with Paterson and Cooper until 1887, when he joined his elder brother, who had set up in Leicester as a manufacturer of optical instruments. The firm was then styled T.S. \& W.Taylor and a few months later, when H.W.Hobson joined them as a partner, it became Taylor, Taylor and Hobson, as it was known for many years.

William Taylor was mainly responsible for technical developments in the firm and he designed the special machine tools required for making lenses and their mountings. However, his most notable work was in originating methods of measuring and gauging screw threads. He proposed a standard screw-thread for lens mountings that was adopted by the Royal Photographic Society, and he served on screw thread committees of the British Standards Institution and the British Association. His interest in golf led him to study the flight of the golf ball, and he designed and patented the "Dimple" golf ball and a mechanical driving machine for testing golf balls.

He was an active member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, being elected Associate Member in 1894, Member in 1901 and Honorary Life Member in 1936. He served on the Council from 1918 and was President in 1932. He took a keen interest in engineering education and advocated the scientific study of materials, processes and machine tools, and of management. His death occurred suddenly while he was helping to rescue his son's car from a snowdrift.

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